[Suryoyo. Simple.]

 Nominative Pronouns & the Copula

> In Surayt, the copular verb 'to be' in its various states (is am are

  was were) assigns a subject by truncating the nominative pronouns

Nominative Pronouns — by person and plurality:

 I. Present & Past Copula

Present copula — formed by truncating the pronoun (except 3S -yo):

  eg. NOUNS: (Hne)^ yolufe-ne = They are(3P) students

  eg. NOUNS: Kul mede madrashto-yo = Everything is(3S) school (idiom)

> See Verbs III section for how to apply the subject (actor) to verbs

  eg. VERBS: (Ko)* malakh|malkho-no = I am(m1S|f1S) walking

Past copula — formed by adding the infix -way- (except 3S -wa):

  eg. NOUNS: (Ono)^ yolufto-wayno = I was(f1S) a student

  eg. VERBS: (Ko)* malkho-wayno = I was(f1S) walking

> Alternatively, the suffix -wa may simply follow the copular suffix
  eg. Rabe-way-ne = Rabe-ne-wa = They were(3P) big

> Applying the copular to pronouns is thus simple duplication:

 Present: hiyeyo|hiyayo, hatat, onono, hnene, hatutu, aħnana

 Past: hiyewa|hiyawa, hatwayt, onowayno, hnewayne, hatwaytu, aħnawayna

  ie. Hat-at = you are(2S)     >    cf. Hat-wayt = you were(2S)

  eg. Eno-no ou nuhro shariro = I am(1S) the light truthful

  eg. Hne-ne qadmoye = They are(3P) first

^ Whilst redundant, one may emphasise the full pronoun prior

* Ko emphasises activity of present & past verbs akin to English '-ing'

  ie. Without "Ko", "Malakh-no" is just a query, "I am (to) walk?"

 II. Future Copula

Future copula (with verbs) — apply Gd/G- (will):

 Gd + [verb + present copular] = () will ()

  eg. Gd malakh-no = I will(m1S) walk

 Gd + [verb + past copular] = () would've () (ie. past conditional)

  eg. Gd malakh-wayno = I would've(m1S) walked

  eg. Gd malkhu-waytu/malkh-utu-wa = Youse would've(2P) walked

Future copula (with nouns/adjectives) — apply "Gd how-" (will become):

 [Gd +]: howe|howyo, howat, howeno, howen, howutu, howina

  eg. Gd how-ina yolufe = We will become(1P) students

  eg. Gd how-at kashirto = You will become(f2S) clever

> How- (become) is also a verb in the present & past contexts

  eg. Ko how-at shaħino kul shteʕinyo = You become(m2S) heated every game

  eg. Ayko how-at-wa? = Where had you become(3P) (Where were you born)?

> Minus the duplication, all there was to know were these highlights:
 7 nominative pronouns (6 + f3S), -yo, -wa/-way-, ko, gd, how-

 Accusative & Possessive Pronouns

Accusative pronouns — used variably as possessive, object, or subject

  eg. Ko malakh-no aʕm-aye = I am walking with them(3P)

  eg. Mid-lan-lokh kthowo men-a = We(1P) got you(m2S) a book from her(f3S)

Possesive pronouns — made by prepositioning d- > did-^ (of)

> Dropping the did- for -eyd- (or altogether*) forms a possesive suffix

  eg. Eshmo dide = Eshm-eyd-e = Eshm-e = His(m3S) name

  eg. Leb-eyd-akh haw-li = Leb-akh haw-li  = Your(f2S) heart give me
 eg. Ou qanyo didokh-yo = Ou qany-eyd-okh-yo = The pen is yours(m2S)

* Dropped in nouns of personal significance (family, body parts, …)

^ Classic Syriac employs dil- in place of did- (ie. Didi = Dili)

^ See also Special Propositions section

 Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns (by proximity, Single, Plural)

  eg. Hani-ne a nosh-eyd-an = These are (the) our people

  eg. Bi duktho hayo qadishto = In that(f) place holy

> Dropping the "h" produces the suffix form (bolded part)

  eg. Ou lalyo hano = Ou laly-ano = Ad-lalyo* = This(m) night

  eg. Man-yo hathe? = Man-y-athe? = Who is this(f)?

* The prefix "Ad" means this genderlessly (eg. Ad-lalyo = This night)

 Definite & Indefinite Articles

Definite article (the) has gender & plurality, & precedes proper names:

 ou|ie = the (m|f)

  eg. Ou Steyfo ħawr-eydi-yo = The Steve friend-mine-is

  eg. Ie malkutho ruħonayto = The kingdom spiritual

 a|an = the (plural | plural when subject begins with vowel)

  eg. An abnay-dan = The sons-our = Our sons

Indefinite article (ie. 'a book') is implied but emphasised with:

 ħa|ħdo = a/one (m|f)

  eg. Kitli [ħdo] shoʕtho = Kitli shoʕtho = I have [an](f) hour

 Special Prepositions

> Some prepositions can be prefixed, including to articles

 M- / Me / Men (cl) = from         >   Mou|Mi|Ma = from the (m|f|P)

 L- / Lwoth (cl) = to/for          >   Lou|Li|La = to/for the (m|f|P)

  eg. Azan mou athro = We went from the(m) Land

      l-duktho ħreto = To a place another(f)

  eg. Me ayko ko oth-at? = From where do you come?

  eg. Mou yamino lou semolo = From the(m) right to the(m) left

 B- / Bġaw (cl) = in               >   Bou|Bi|Ba = in the (m|f|P)

 D- = of                           >   Dou|Di|Da = of the (m|f|P)

  eg. Bi dukth-ayo d-babon-eyd-an = In the(f) place that of our fathers

  eg. Ou qolo dou Shemʕun basimo-yo = The voice of the(m) Simon is nice

 S- / Se = by/beside              >   Sou|Si|Sa = by/beside the (m|f|P)

  eg. Maħet ou koso se idi = Place the cup by my hand

  eg. Azi-no sou dukano di Sara = I went by the(m) shop of (the)(f) Sara

  eg. A qlide sa qanye-ne = The keys beside the pens-are

> These prefixes are first modified when attaching accusative pronouns*

  eg. Men-okh L-el-an = From you to (to) us

  eg. Kit flefle eb-aye = There's chilli in them (idiom: 'hyperactive')

  eg. Athi-li egartho men-aykhu = Came to me a letter from youse

* See Accusative & Possessive Pronouns section

 Conjunctions, Prepositions & Relative Pronouns

> Conjunctions & prepositions link words & phrases

  eg. Eno u hat ʕam ħdode = Me and you with each-other

  eg. Shamo mar hul ema gd ruqthina = Shamo tell till when will we dance

  eg. Lo ħzele elo hesh mhaymanle = He didn't see but still he believed

  eg. Marli u d-lo nakfutho ste = Tell me, and without shyness too

Relative pronouns link a clause or statement to an object/person

> In English: who, whom, which, whoever, whomever, whichever, that…

> In Surayt the preposition d- (of) takes these meanings contextually

  eg. An noshe d-athen mou turo = The people who came from the mountain

  eg. Shmaʕ, d-yulf-utu = Listen, so that you(2P) learn

  eg. Khul, d-yurw-at = Eat, that you(2S) may grow

  eg. Man d-haymen ebi kitle ħaye = Whomever believes in me has life

  eg. Nafiq-no d-ħoze-no ie britho = I left in order to see the world

 Existence is, Possession has, & Ability can

Kit/Kito   (cl. Ko-ith) = there is / there exists

Layt/Layto (cl. Lo-ith) = there isn't / there doesn't exist

Existence — is & isn't / are & aren't / was & wasn't / were & weren't

  eg. Kit aloho = There is a god (idiom: 'await divine jugment')

  eg. Layt mede ħatho = There isn't anything new

> Conjugate with the nominative pronouns to assign person & tense

  eg. Kit-wa slutho athmel = There was(3S) a prayer yesterday

  eg. Lat-atu noquse = Youse aren't(2P) lacking

  eg. Lat-yo shrolo = It/he/she isn't(3S) true

Possession — have & haven't / had & hadn't

> Conjugate with -l- (to) & accusative pronoun^ to indicate possession

 Kitl- = Have

 Latl- = Haven't

  eg. Kitl-okh yuqr-utho = You have(2S) weight (respect)

  eg. Latl-i lebo = I haven't(1S) heart (idiom: 'not in the mood')

> Past possession is indicated by terminal -wa*

  eg. Kitl-an-wa ħago athmel = We had(1P) a party yesterday

  eg. Latl-a-wa zabno = She hadn't(f3S) time

Ability — can & can't / could've & couldn't have

> Conjugate with -b- (in) & accusative pronoun^ to indicate ability

 Kib-  = Can

 Layb- = Cannot

  eg. Kib-i othe-no = I can(1S) come | Can(1S) I come?

  eg. Layb-akh hozat-li = You can't(f2S) see me

> Past ability is indicated by terminal -wa*

  eg. Kib-okh-wa malkh-at-wa l-harke = You could've(2S) walked to here

  eg. Layb-an-wa saymi-na-wa mede = We couldn't have(1P) done anything

^ See Special Propositions & Verbs III sections

  Exception for 3P/2P: -aye & -ayku is shortened for -e & -khu,
 with -b- pronounced as p, whilst -l- is made silent

  ie. Kip-e/Lap-e (they can/n't)     Kip-khu/Lap-khu (youse can/n't)

      Kit-e/Lat-e (they have/n't)    Kit-khu/Lat-khu (youse have/n't)

* Alternative form exists with the infix -way-

  eg. Kit-lan-wa = Kit-way-lan = We had(1P)

 Gender & Plurality

Noun & adjective gender
> A noun ending in -o without t/th prior is typically* male.
 The female is formed (if valid) with -to/-itho^.

  eg. Malfono | Malfonitho = Teacher(m|f)

  eg. Zʕuro | Zʕirto = Child(m|f)

  eg. Ħolo | Ħlto = Uncle | Aunt

Noun & adjective plurality
> The -o becomes -e/-one for male plural*. Female plural (if valid)
 replaces -to/-itho for -othe/-yothe (-otho/-yotho alternatively).

  eg. Malfone | Malfonyothe = Teachers(m|f)

  eg. Zʕure = Children

  eg. Ħolone | Ħltothe = Uncles | Aunts

> Loanwords typically lack a terminal -o, & made plural with -at

  eg. Talafon(S) > Talafonat(P) = Telephones

> Adjectives agree with the gender & pluratity of their subject

  eg. Bartho shafirto-yo = Girl(f S) beautiful she is

  eg. Bote* shafire lat-li = Houses(m P) beautiful I haven't

  eg. Lebo basimo kit-li = Heart(m S) pleasant have I

> Verbs also agree, see Verbs section for details on conjugation

  eg. Hiye ko malekh | Hiya ko malkho = He|She is walking(m|f)

  eg. Ono ko rohatno|ruhtono = I am runnning(m|f)

  eg. Rahet|Rahito lou bayto = He|She ran home(m|f)

* Some male noun roots have a terminal t & are made plural irregularly
 eg. Bayto (house) > Bote (houses) cf. not 'Baytone'

^ Similarly, some female nouns lack a penultimate t

  eg. Emo > Emothe = Mother > Mothers

 Verbs

 I. Roots & Classes of Verbs

> Verbs are conjugated from 3-4 letter roots into various forms:

  Root > Class > Mood > Active/Passive > Person > Tense

  eg. g-r-sh (pull) > grsh-le (he pulled) > grshle-wa (he had pulled)…

> Roots can can often be found in related nouns or adjectives

  eg. Sh-a-l: Shuwolo (a question) > Mshayel (ask)

  eg. k-r-i: Karyo (short) > Makri (shorten)

  eg. R-ħ-m: Raħme (mercy) > Marħm (pity)

> Verbs exist across three broad classes, depending on the action

 - Ground: A simple base action

  eg. Zbat (hold), Ħzay (see), Rhat (run), Zokh (go), Sm (do)

 - Intensive: An intensified action; prefixed with M-*

  eg. Mhalaq (throw), Mshayel (ask), Mthakr (recall), Mrabi (nurture)

 - Causative: An action to bring/cause change; prefixed with Ma-^

  eg. Mafhm (clarify), Madʕr (return), Makhli (empty), Makri (shorten)

> Roots can exist across different verbal classes

  eg. D-m-kh: Dmakh (Gr.: sleep) > Madmkh (Cau.: put to rest)

  eg. F-h-m: Fham (Gr.: understand) > Mafhm (Cau.: clarify)

> Prior examples are all active voice verbs in 3rd person singular.

  Passive voice verbs indicate being acted upon rather than doing.
 These are prefixed with Mi-, or Mita- for causative class verbs:
  eg. Mhalaq = throw   >   Mi-halaq = being thrown
 eg. Madʕr = return   >   Mita-dʕr = being returned

* Not to be confused with the preposition M- (from)

^ This is akin to many verbs that end in -ify (to change) in English

 II. Verbal Mood & Tense

> Prior examples are also all in imperative mood (command).

> Each form derives from a basic infinitive mood*, which is typically
 gendered & spoken in the present or future context, preceded by:

  Ko (doing), Gd (will do), or a conjunction.

  eg. Ko goresh = He is pulling

  eg. Gd gursho = She will be pulling

  eg. Hul domekh|dmkho = Until he|she sleeps

* Which for causative class verbs is the same as the imperative mood

> Verbal noun mood follows the rules of a typical noun & may follow
 definite articles. If causative, the prefix Ma- becomes Te-.

  eg. Ou grosho (the pull) | dmokho (the sleep) | Zboto (the capture)

  eg. Ou te-dʕoro dou malko = The returning of the king

Table II.a — Conjugating a ground transitive verb

> Past tense has 4 forms made simply by suffix -wa (or the infix -way-),
 except the past simple, which has its own verb structure

 - Past continuous: continuing the present action (ie. was walking)

 - Past conditional: a subjunctive action (ie. would've walked)

> Past idicative tense states factually a former action

 - Past simple: indicative statement of former action (ie. walked)

 - Past perfect/preterit: indicative & explicitly past (ie. had walked)

> Only in ground verbs do indicative vowels differ^ from the infinitive.
> In all but ground intransitive verbs (no direct object is acted upon),
 the indicative is made by adding a subject with accusative pronouns

  eg. Goresh > Grish-le  |  Mħalaq > Mħalaq-le
^ The details of where/how vowels are placed is beyond this scope

Table II.b — Conjugating a ground intransitive verb

Table II.c — Conjugating an intensive verb (same applies to causative)

Table II.d — Conjugating a short root verb, done so irregularly

 III. Conjugating Subject & Object

> The subject of a verb acts, & the object is acted upon.

> English uses a SVO (subject-vowel-object) order (eg. She loved him).

  Sureth verbal conjugation uses VSO order (ie. = Rħim-la-le).

> VSO applies to transitive verbs — performing actions to an object.
 Intransitive verbs, meaning no object is being acted upon, thus only
 employ a subjective pronoun in VS order (eg. Damikh-no = I slept).

> The subject (actor) is usually* assigned with the nominative pronouns:

  eg. Damikh-utu (youse slept), Rahit-at (you ran), Ko Mhalaq-no (I am
     thowing), Yaqith-i (they burnt), Ko ruħm-ono (I(f) love)

> The object acted upon is assigned with -l- (to) + accusative pronouns:

  ie. Mħe-li hie = Mħe-li-le = I hit him

  ie. Hze-li radayto eli = Hze-li-li radayto = I found myself a car

  eg. Ko mhalaq-no-le muklo = I'm throwing him food

  eg. Gd msaʕd-utu-way-la = Youse would've help her

* As in the example Rħim-la-le however, note the use of an accusative
 pronoun -la- as the subject (she). This rule applies to transitive
 verbs of active indicative tense (past simple/perfect).

  eg. Mħalaq-lan-wa ou zabno = We had thrown the time

  eg. Grsh-la-li me idi = She pulled me from my hand

  eg. Hze-lkhu ou bahro = Youse had seen the light

  eg. Shmʕ-e^ qolo = They heard a voice

^ Following a consonant, the -l- isn't pronounced in 3P/2P

 Adverbs

> Adverbs give properties to verbs / adjectives / other adverbs

> Many of these double as nouns/adjectives, which are listed here as
 masculine. See Gender & Plurality section for rules of conversion.

  eg. (m|f|P): Qar-iwo|uto|iwe, Qadm-oyo|ayto|oye, ħar-oyo|ayto|oye

> Suffix -tir forms superlative/comparative adjectives (akin to -er)

  eg. Sm tow-tir = Do better  |  Rab-tir m-ano = Bigger than this

 Colours

> Colours (Gawne) in male singular (see Gender & Plurality section)

  ie. Semoqo | Semiqto | Semoqe = Red(m|f|P)

* The -oyo here means 'akin to' or 'of' (eg. Midyoyo = of Midyat);
 not to be confused with the verb -yo (is)

 Numerals

> A -y suffix (like English) is the tens multiplier (eg. 60 = Ishty)
 with the exception of ʕasro (10) & ʕisry (20)

> The ones unit is stated prior to the tens, like other semitic tongues

  eg. Shwaʕ-mo u ħa-tlethy = Seven-hundred & one-thirty = 731

* 11-19 are said with the feminine 10s -ʕsar (& ones, except 12 & 16)

  ie. 12 = Tr-a-ʕsar  |  16 = Isht-ʕsar  |  cf. 18 = Tshaʕ-ʕsar

^ Mathe (200) is the exception to the feminine-mo rule

 Time

* Masculine numbers 2-5 (Tre Tlotho Arbʕo Ħamsho), see Numerals section

 Family

> The family (Iqartho). Aunts & uncles have varying names, depending on
 maternal/paternal & blood/marriage relation.

* Qasho has taken on the meaning 'priest', which is classically Kohno

 Body Parts

 Animals

> Common animals (Ħaywotho). Some are feminine regardless of gender.

 References

"Turoyo: The Language of Tur Abdin / Modern Aramaic In Practice",
Mikael Oez, Modern Aramaic Press, 2014

"Šlomo Surayt - An introductory course in Syriac Aramaic (Turoyo)",
Shabo Talay, Aramaic-Online Project, 2014-2017,

https://aramaic.geschkult.fu-berlin.de/course/en/a2-glossary

"Sureth dictionary", Association Assyrophile de France,
http://www.assyrianlanguages.org 

"Syriac dictionary", Raad Malki,
http://www.syriacdictionary.net

> Writing this puts me in awe at how infants can intuitively organise
 language. It's not easy, but I've tried to make it simple. Don't be
 intimidated! It's a reference, skim it and come back to it.

> Contact: au.yousef+dev@gmail.com